http://www.smccd.net/accounts/goth/MainPages/Chron/chronphys.htm

The Chronology of Physics 

 http://physics.unl.edu/history/histinstr/heat.html

Thermopile #10212
Unsigned
A thermopile is a set of thermocouples connected in series. When connected to a sensitive galvanometer and properly aimed it is able to detect the heat from a match across the room. In a prism spectrum it can be used to detect the infrared radiation beyond the visible part of the spectrum.
Reference: Sutton, Demonstration Experiments in Physics, New York, 1938, p.416.

Actinometer #10096
Ducretet á Paris
The actinometer is one form of pyrheliometer, a device to measure the intensity of sunlight. It was invented in 1825 by John Herschel but the form of the present instrument is due to Violle. It consists of two concentric hollow spheres. The space between them is filled with water and a thermometer with a blackened bulb is inserted to the center of the inner sphere. The device is oriented so that sunlight passes through one aperture and through to the thermometer bulb. From measurements of the rate of rise of the temperature of the bulb and rate of fall when the shutter is closed, one can calculate the solar constant and even obtain a value for the temperature of the sun.
References: Max Kohl Catalogue No. 100 (c.1927) p.769, Robert Bud and Deborah Jean Warner, Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia, New York, 1998, pp.15-17.

Piezometer #10182
Unsigned
The piezometer is a device to measure pressure and the compressibility of liquids. This is a form devised by Regnault and was used to show that water is nearly incompressible.
Reference: Max Kohl Catalogue No. 100 (c.1927) p.312.

Vacuum Pump and Bell Jar #10077 and 10079
Richards and Co., New York
The bell jar is evacuated by repeated operation of the plunger. A bell placed inside the jar cannot be heard when sufficient air has been removed, showing that a medium is necessary to conduct sound.
Reference: Eimer and Amend BCM Catalog (1927) p.652.

Magdeburg Hemispheres #10078
E.S. Ritchie, Boston
This apparatus used to show the pressure of the atmosphere. When the two hemispheres are placed together and the interior evacuated, it takes an unexpectedly large force to pull them apart. This was first demonstrated by Otto von Guericke (1602-1686) who was the Mayor of Magdeburg, Germany. He invented the vacuum pump and gave a spectacular public demonstration in 1654 using larger hemispheres and two teams of horses.
References: I. Bernard Cohen, Album of Science, New York, 1950, p.122; J.D. Bernal, Science in History, Vol. 2, Cambridge, MA, 1969, pp.470-72; David Wheatland, The Apparatus of Science at Harvard, 1765-1800, Cambridge, 1968, pp.112-13.

Pascal’s Vases #10478
Unsigned
Water is added to the level indicated by a horizontal rod and an indicator shows the pressure at the bottom. Three differently shaped "vases" can be used to show that the pressure depends only on the depth, not on the shape of the vessel or the amount of water contained in it.
Reference: Max Kohl Catalogue No. 100 (c.1927) p.300.

Hydraulic Ram #????
This model demonstrates how the inertia of a falling body of water can be used to raise a small portion of that water to a point higher than its source.
References: Max Kohl Price List No. 100 (c.1927), p.308; Central Scientific Co. Catalog J-141 (1941), p.1119.

Specific Heat Capacity Demonstration #10378
E. Leybold's Nachfolger
There are four vertical rods with cylindrical samples of different materials labeled "Lead," "Tin," "Iron" and "Brass." These rest in a shallow tray but can be raised and held in place by a locking mechanism. They are heated to the same temperature by hot water in the tray, then raised to allow insertion of a block of paraffin on to which they are lowered. The distances they penetrate as they melt the paraffin depend on their particular specific heat capacities.
Reference: Max Kohl Price List No. 100 (c.1927), p.773.
Also, thanks to Paolo Brenni for information on the operation of this device.

Model of a Ventilator
Unsigned

The pill-box shaped enclosure contains a separate assembly consisting of a disk with vanes with can be rotated to act like a fan. When the outer enclosure is removed the effect of the moving air on a nearby flame is minor. But when the enclosure is placed over the rotating vanes the air is directed through the tangential outlet so the flame is strongly deflected. Thanks to John A. Daffron who spotted the device in a Leybold catalogue.
Reference: E. Leybold Nachfolger catalogue 1900-1910.

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/topics/TimeStandards.html

The equation of time (EOT) is a formula used in the process of converting between solar time and clock time to compensate for the earth's elliptical orbit around the sun and its axial tilt. Essentially, the earth does not move perfectly smoothly in a perfectly circular orbit, so the EOT adjusts for that. Graphically, it appears as:
 For example, the EOT adjustment in mid-February is about -14 minutes. So when converting clock time to local solar time, you'd subtract 14 minutes. When converting from local solar time to clock time, you'd add 14 minutes.

http://susdesign.com/sunangle/

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/BarycentricDynamicalTime.html

http://www.solarviews.com/cap/misc/obliquity.htm

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/CelestialEquator.html

http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmpause.html

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/RS_OneDay.php

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/AltAz.php

--------------

Sample Audio Files: popular songs
niffy site

http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/audio/C137#
http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/audio/C119#
http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/audio/C115#
http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/audio/C118#
http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/audio/C114#

http://131.104.156.23/Lectures/CHEM_207/vibrational_spectroscopy

Historical Development of Vibrational Spectroscopy

Early applications of IR spectroscopy were exclusively done in the near IR region because glass is transparent for the involved photon energies.

1800 Sir William Herschel discovers IR through his famous Prism + Thermometer experiment (W. Herschel, Philos. Trans. MDCCC, 284)
1905 Coblentz investigates water in minerals (W. W. Coblentz, J. Franklin Inst. 1911, 172, 309
1923 prediction of the Raman effect by A. G. Smekal
1929 the great Indian Physicist Raman observes the effect named after him. The effect was independently discovered by G. S. Landsberg and L. I. Mandelstam in the Soviet Union. Raman Spectroscopy has seen a renaissance since the introduction of more powerful light sources (lasers)
1930 Nobel Prize in Physics Raman
1937 Lehrer (BASF) develops the first fully automated IR spectrometer (E. Lehrer, Z. Techn. Phys. 1942, 23, 169)
1940 Terenin et al. study adsorbed species on oxides with IR spectroscopy in the Soviet Union
1946 First Comprehensive Catalog of IR spectra (American Petroleum Research Program 44)
1990 The total number of published IR spectra exceeds 150,000
Although the techniques to measure IR and Raman spectra are quite different, they both probe the vibratory fine structure of matter. The vibratory fine structure can be described a localized approach focussing on individual bonds.

http://infraredregistry.com/infraredovertime.php

Less than 200 years ago the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply 'the infrared' as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir William Herschel - Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus - was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun's image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun's heat, while others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds' observation.

Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton's prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-gfass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other ther­mometers, placed outside the sun's rays, served as controls.

As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating

effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point.

Marsillio Landriani  (1746-1815)

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he found it, lay well beyond the red end - in what is known today as the 'infrared wavelengths

http://www.wickcentral.com/st326/sta326.html

THE AXIOMATIC BASIS OF PROBABILITY THEORY

MAIN TOPICS     click to access directly
Introduction
Definition of Probability
The Analytic Approach To Probability Space
Uncertainty, Quantum Mechanics and Relativity
References

Probability theorem has been used to help understand everything from simple to very complicated systems. It also helps us realize the uncertainty of the universe. Albert Einstein always said, " God does not play dice". But today we know that this is not true- God does play dice. An event can have many outcomes.